Protecting the Antibacterial Coating of Urinal Catheters for Improving Safety.

Catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTI) are among the most common bacterial infections associated with prolonged hospitalization and increased healthcare expenditures. Despite recent advances in the prevention and treatment of these infections, there are still many challenges remaining, among them the creation of a durable catheter coating, which prevents bacterial biofilm formation. The current work reports on a method of protecting medical tubing endowed with antibiofilm properties. Silicone catheters coated sonochemically with ZnO nanoparticles (NPs) demonstrated excellent antibiofilm effects. Toward approval by the European Medicines Agency, it was realized that the ZnO coating would not withstand the regulatory requirements of avoiding dissolution for 14 days in artificial urine examination. Namely, after exposure to urine for 14 days, the coating amount was reduced by 90%. Additional coatings with either carbon or silica maintained antibiofilm activity against Staphylococcus aureus while resisting dissolution in artificial urine for 14 days (C- or SiO2-protected catheters exhibited only 29% reduction). HR-SEM images of the protected catheters indicate the presence of the ZnO coating as well as the protective layer. Antibiofilm activity of all catheters was evaluated both before and after exposure to artificial urine. It was shown that before artificial urine exposure, all coated catheters showed high antibiofilm properties compared to the uncoated control. Exposure of ZnO-coated catheters, without the protective layer, to artificial urine had a significant effect exhibited by the decrease in antibiofilm activity by almost 2 orders of magnitude, compared to unexposed catheters. Toxicity studies performed using a reconstructed human epidermis demonstrated the safety of the improved coating. Exposure of the epidermis to ZnO catheter extracts in artificial urine affects tissue viability compared with control samples, which was not observed in the case of ZnO NPs coating with SiO2 or C. We suggest that silica and carbon coatings confer some protection against zinc ions release, improving ZnO coating safety.

Sonochemical treatment of packaging materials for prolonging fresh produce shelf life.

Packaging bags made of polyethylene (PE) were sonochemically coated with edible antibacterial nanoparticles of chitosan (CS). In this work, the nanoparticles (NPs) were deposited on the surface of PE packaging bags by applying sonication waves on an acetic solution of chitosan. The characterization of CS NPs and PE bags was conducted by physicochemical techniques. The results showed that the coated bags had longer freshness than the uncoated ones. Furthermore, the characterization of cucumber, mushroom, and garlic placed into coated and uncoated PE bags was conducted by monitoring various parameters such as mass loss, total soluble solids, pH, and visual inspection. The study revealed that the PE bags coated with CS NPs showed a noticeable result in extending the shelf life of fresh produce. Finally, the antibacterial activity of PE bags was evaluated against various bacterial species. Hence, the PE bags coated with CS NPs could be a promising candidate for elongating the shelf life of packaged fresh produce.

Zirconium-Coated ß-Cyclodextrin Nanomaterials for Biofilm Eradication.

Under alkaline treatment, zirconyl chloride (ZrOCl2.8H2O) became a zirconia gel and formed a stable complex with beta-cyclodextrin (ßCD). This complex was highly active in reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation via H2O2 decomposition. Its surface with numerous hydroxyl groups acts as an ionic sponge to capture the charged reaction intermediates, including superoxide (O2-•) and the hydroxyl radical (•OH). ROS, especially •OH radicals, are harmful to living microorganisms because of their kinetic instability, high oxidation potential, and chemical nonselectivity. Therefore, •OH radicals can engage in fast reactions with virtually any adjacent biomolecule. With H2O2, the complex with cationic and hydrophobic moieties interacted with the anionic bacterial membrane of two Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus and S. epidermidis) and two Gram-negative (Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae) strains. The Zr-ßCD-H2O2 also eradicated more than 99% of the biofilm of these four pathogens. Considering the difficult acquisition of resistance to the oxidation of •OH, the results suggested that this ßCD-based nanomaterial might be a promising agent to target both drug-resistant pathogens with no cytotoxicity and exceptional antimicrobial activity.

Probing Polarity and pH Sensitivity of Carbon Dots in Escherichia coli through Time-Resolved Fluorescence Analyses.

Intracellular monitoring of pH and polarity is crucial for understanding cellular processes and functions. This study employed pH- and polarity-sensitive nanomaterials such as carbon dots (CDs) for the intracellular sensing of pH, polarity, and viscosity using integrated time-resolved fluorescence anisotropy (FA) imaging (TR-FAIM) and fluorescence lifetime (FLT) imaging microscopy (FLIM), thereby enabling comprehensive characterization. The functional groups on the surface of CDs exhibit sensitivity to changes in the microenvironment, leading to variations in fluorescence intensity (FI) and FLT according to pH and polarity. The FLT of CDs in aqueous solution changed gradually from 6.38 ± 0.05 ns to 8.03 ± 0.21 ns within a pH range of 2-8. Interestingly, a complex relationship of FI and FLT was observed during measurements of CDs with decreasing polarity. However, the FA and rotational correlation time (θ) increased from 0.062 ± 0.019 to 0.112 ± 0.023 and from 0.49 ± 0.03 ns to 2.01 ± 0.27 ns, respectively. This increase in FA and θ was attributed to the higher viscosity accompanying the decrease in polarity. Furthermore, CDs were found to bind to three locations in Escherichia coli: the cell wall, inner membrane, and cytoplasm, enabling intracellular characterization using FI and FA decay imaging. FLT provided insights into cytoplasmic pH (7.67 ± 0.48), which agreed with previous works, as well as the decrease in polarity in the cell wall and inner membrane. The CD aggregation was suspected in certain areas based on FA, and the θ provided information on cytoplasmic heterogeneity due to the aggregation and/or interactions with biomolecules. The combined TR-FAIM/FLIM system allowed for simultaneous monitoring of pH and polarity changes through FLIM and viscosity variations through TR-FAIM.

Waste-Derived Sustainable Fluorescent Nanocarbon-Coated Breathable Functional Fabric for Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Applications.

Hospital-acquired (nosocomial) infections account for the majority of adverse health effects during care delivery, placing an immense financial strain on healthcare systems around the world. For the first time, the present article provides evidence of a straightforward pollution-free technique to fabricate a heteroatom-doped carbon dot immobilized fluorescent biopolymer composite for the development of functional textiles with antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. A simple, facile, and eco-friendly approach was devised to prepare heteroatom-doped carbon dots from waste green tea and a biopolymer. The carbon dots showed an excitation-dependent emission behavior, and the XPS data unveiled that they are co-doped with nitrogen and sulfur. A facile physical compounding strategy was adopted to fabricate a carbon dot reinforced biopolymeric composite followed by immobilization onto the textile. The composite textiles revealed excellent antioxidant activity, determined by 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (>80%) and 2,2'-azinobis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid assays (>90%). The results of the disc diffusion assay indicated that the composite textiles substantially inhibited the growth of both tested bacteria Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis with increasing coating cycles. The time-dependent antibacterial experiments revealed that the nanocomposite can inhibit significant bacterial growth within a few hours. The present study could open up the possibility for the commercialization of inexpensive smart textile substrates for the prevention of microbial contamination used for the medical and healthcare field.

Micelle encapsulation zinc-doped copper oxide nanocomposites reverse Olaparib resistance in ovarian cancer by disrupting homologous recombination repair.

Micelle Encapsulation Zinc-doped copper oxide nanocomposites (MEnZn-CuO NPs) is a novel doped metal nanomaterial prepared by our group based on Zinc doped copper oxide nanocomposites (Zn-CuO NPs) using non-micellar beam. Compared with Zn-CuO NPs, MEnZn-CuO NPs have uniform nanoproperties and high stability. In this study, we explored the anticancer effects of MEnZn-CuO NPs on human ovarian cancer cells. In addition to affecting cell proliferation, migration, apoptosis and autophagy, MEnZn-CuO NPs have a greater potential for clinical application by inducing HR repair defects in ovarian cancer cells in combination with poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors for lethal effects.

Potassium Molten Salt-Mediated In Situ Structural Reconstruction of a Carbon Nitride Photocatalyst.

Metal-free polymeric carbon nitride (PCN) materials are at the forefront of photocatalytic applications. Nevertheless, the overall functionality and performance of bulk PCN are limited by rapid charge recombination, high chemical inertness, and inadequate surface-active sites. To address these, here, we employed potassium molten salts (K+X-, where X- is Cl-, Br-, and I-) as a template for the in situ generation of surface reactive sites in thermal pyrolyzed PCN. Theoretical calculations imply that addition of KX salts to PCN-forming monomers causes halogen ions to be doped into C or N sites of PCN with a relative trend of halogen ion doping being Cl < Br < I. The experimental results show that reconstructing C and N sites in PCN develops newer reactive sites that are beneficial for surface catalysis. Interestingly, the photocatalytic H2O2 generation rate of KBr-modified PCN was 199.0 µmol h-1, about three times that of bulk PCN. Owing to the simple and straightforward approach, we expect molten salt-assisted synthesis to have wide exploration in modifying PCN photocatalytic activity.

Sonochemistry of molten metals.

Ultrasonic irradiation of molten metals in liquid media causes dispersion of the metals into suspensions of micro- and nanoparticles that can be separated. This is applicable mainly to low-mp elemental metals or alloys, but higher mp elemental metals or alloys were also reported. Among metals, mercury and gallium exhibit especially-low melting points and are thus considered as liquid metals (LMs). Sonication of mercury in aqueous solutions of certain metal ions can cause simultaneous reduction of the ions and reactions between the metals. Gallium can be melted and sonicated in warm water, as well as in aqueous solutions of various solutes such as metal ions and organic compounds, which opened a wide window of interactions between the gallium particles and the solutes. Sonication of molten metals in organic liquids, such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) 400, forms carbon dots (C-dots) doped with nanoparticles of these metals. This review article summarizes the various interactions and reactions that occur upon sonication of metals in liquid media.

Sonochemistry of molten gallium.

This review article summarizes the comprehensive work that was done in our laboratory in recent years, as-well-as other reports, on the various aspects of sonochemistry of molten gallium. The low mp (29.8 °C) of gallium enables its melting in warm water, aqueous solutions and organic liquids. This opened a new research direction that focused on the chemical and physical properties of gallium particles that were formed in such media. It includes their interactions with water and with organic and inorganic solutes in aqueous solutions and with carbon nanoparticles. Formation of nanoparticles of liquid gallium alloys was also reported.

Ultrasonic-assisted synthesis of lignin-capped Cu2O nanocomposite with antibiofilm properties.

Under ultrasonication, cuprous oxide (Cu2O) microparticles (<5 µm) were fragmented into nanoparticles (NPs, ranging from 10 to 30 nm in diameter), and interacted strongly with alkali lignin (Mw = 10 kDa) to form a nanocomposite. The ultrasonic wave generates strong binding interaction between lignin and Cu2O. The L-Cu nanocomposite exhibited synergistic effects with enhanced antibiofilm activities against E. coli, multidrug-resistant (MDR) E. coli, S. aureus (SA), methicillin-resistant SA, and P. aeruginosa (PA). The lignin-Cu2O (L-Cu) nanocomposite also imparted notable eradication of such bacterial biofilms. Experimental evidence unraveled the destruction of bacterial cell walls by L-Cu, which interacted strongly with the bacterial membrane. After exposure to L-Cu, the bacterial cells lost the integrated structural morphology. The estimated MIC for biofilm inhibition for the five tested pathogens was 1 mg/mL L-Cu (92 % lignin and 8 % Cu2ONPs, w/w %). The MIC for bacterial eradication was noticeably lower; 0.3 mg/mL (87 % lignin + 13 % Cu2ONPs, w/w %) for PA and SA, whereas this value was appreciably higher for MDR E. coli (0.56 mg/mL, 86 % lignin and 14 % Cu2O NPs). Such results highlighted the potential of L-Cu as an alternative to neutralize MDR pathogens.

Naturally Derived Carbon Dots In Situ Confined Self-Healing and Breathable Hydrogel Monolith for Anomalous Diffusion-Driven Phytomedicine Release.

Fluorescent nanocarbons are well-proficient nanomaterials because of their optical properties and surface engineering. Herein, Apium graveolens-derived carbon dots (ACDs) have been synthesized by a one-step hydrothermal process without using any surplus vigorous chemicals or ligands. ACDs were captured via an in situ gelation reaction to form a semi-interpenetrating polymer network system showing mechanical robustness, fluorescent behavior, and natural adhesivity. ACDs-reinforced hydrogels were tested against robust uniaxial stress, repeated mechanical stretching, thixotropy, low creep, and fast strain recovery, confirming their elastomeric sustainability. Moreover, the room-temperature self-healing behavior was observed for the ACDs-reinforced hydrogels, with a healing efficacy of more than 45%. Water imbibition through hydrogel surfaces was digitally monitored via "breathing" and "accelerated breathing" behaviors. The phytomedicine release from the hydrogels was tuned by the ACDs' microstructure regulatory activity, resulting in better control of the diffusion rate compared to conventional chemical hydrogels. Finally, the phytomedicine-loaded hydrogels were found to be excellent bactericidal materials eradicating more than 85% of Gram-positive and -negative bacteria. The delayed network rupturing, superstretchability, fluorescent self-healing, controlled release, and antibacterial behavior could make this material an excellent alternative to soft biomaterials and soft robotics.

Enhanced UV Protection, Heavy Metal Detection, and Antibacterial Properties of Biomass-Derived Carbon Dots Coated on Protective Fabrics.

Carbon dots (CDs) were simply prepared from charcoal by hydrothermal processing at 180 °C for 15 h without any chemicals. The as-prepared CDs with an average diameter of 5 ± 6 nm exhibited a predominant absorption peak at 290 nm, corresponding to the n to π* transition of the oxygen functional groups (C═O) and the free amine functional groups (-NH2). The resulting CDs were then incorporated into cotton and polyester by facile ultrasonication for 1 h. The obtained CD-coated fabrics were first evaluated for their UV-blocking capability and then for their antibacterial properties against two model pathogens: Gram-negative E. coli and Gram-positive S. aureus. Both cotton and polyester showed no UV protection at 280 or 380 nm; conversely, cotton or polyester decorated with CDs exhibited a UV blocking ratio of 82-98%. The CD-coated fabrics showed 100% antibacterial activities against E. coli and S. aureus, whereas the pristine fabrics showed no effect. The CDs/fabrics could adsorb Hg2+ and Fe3+, resulting in a drastic fluorescence quenching. As such, this distinct feature was exploited for the removal and detection of these two ions with the limits of detection of 55and 72 µM, respectively.

Cuprous Oxide Nanoparticles Decorated Fabric Materials with Anti-biofilm Properties.

Considering the global spread of bacterial infections, the development of anti-biofilm surfaces with high antimicrobial activities is highly desired. This work unraveled a simple, sonochemical method for coating Cu2O nanoparticles (NPs) on three different flexible substrates: polyester (PE), nylon 2 (N2), and polyethylene (PEL). The introduction of Cu2O NPs on these substrates enhanced their surface hydrophobicity, induced ROS generation, and completely inhibited the growth of sensitive (Escherichia coli and Staphyloccocus aureus) and drug-resistant (MDR E. coli and MRSA) planktonic and biofilm. The experimental results confirmed that Cu2O-PE exhibited complete biofilm mass reduction ability for all four strains, whereas Cu2O-N2 showed more than 99% biomass inhibition against both drug-resistant and sensitive pathogens in 6 h. Moreover, Cu2O-PEL also indicated a 99.95, 97.73, 98.00, and 99.20% biomass reduction of MRSA, MDR E. coli, E. coli, and S. aureus, respectively. All substrates were investigated for time-dependent inhibitions, and the associated biofilm mass and log reduction were evaluated. The mechanisms of Cu2O NP action against the mature biofilms include the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as well as electrostatic interaction between Cu2O NPs and bacterial membranes. The current study could pave the way for the commercialization of sonochemically coated Cu2O NP flexible substrates for the prevention of microbial contamination in hospitals and industrial environments.

Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNC)-Based Functional Materials for Supercapacitor Applications.

The growth of industrialization and the population has increased the usage of fossil fuels, resulting in the emission of large amounts of CO2. This serious environmental issue can be abated by using sustainable and environmentally friendly materials with promising novel and superior performance as an alternative to petroleum-based plastics. Emerging nanomaterials derived from abundant natural resources have received considerable attention as candidates to replace petroleum-based synthetic polymers. As renewable materials from biomass, cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) nanomaterials exhibit unique physicochemical properties, low cost, biocompatibility and biodegradability. Among a plethora of applications, CNCs have become proven nanomaterials for energy applications encompassing energy storage devices and supercapacitors. This review highlights the recent research contribution on novel CNC-conductive materials and CNCs-based nanocomposites, focusing on their synthesis, surface functionalization and potential applications as supercapacitors (SCs). The synthesis of CNCs encompasses various pretreatment steps including acid hydrolysis, mechanical exfoliation and enzymatic and combination processes from renewable carbon sources. For the widespread applications of CNCs, their derivatives such as carboxylated CNCs, aldehyde-CNCs, hydride-CNCs and sulfonated CNC-based materials are more pertinent. The potential applications of CNCs-conductive hybrid composites as SCs, critical technical issues and the future feasibility of this endeavor are highlighted. Discussion is also extended to the transformation of renewable and low-attractive CNCs to conductive nanocomposites using green approaches. This review also addresses the key scientific achievements and industrial uses of nanoscale materials and composites for energy conversion and storage applications.

CuO-Coated Antibacterial and Antiviral Car Air-Conditioning Filters.

The demand for improved indoor air quality, especially during the pandemic of Covid-19, has led to renewed interest in antiviral and antibacterial air-conditioning systems. Here, air filters of vehicles made of nonwoven polyester filter media were sonochemically coated with CuO nanoparticles by a roll-to-roll coating method. The product, aimed at providing commuters with high air quality, showed good stability and mechanical properties and potent activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus bacteria, H1N1 influenza, and two SARS-CoV-2 variants. The filtering properties of a coated filter were tested, and they were similar to those of the uncoated filter. Leaching tests as a function of airflow were conducted, and the main outcome was that the coating was stable and particles were not detached from the coated media. Extension to other air-conditioning systems was straightforward.

Effects of a ZnCuO-Nanocoated Ti-6Al-4V Surface on Bacterial and Host Cells.

This study aims to investigate the effects of a novel ZnCuO nanoparticle coating for dental implants-versus those of conventional titanium surfaces-on bacteria and host cells. A multispecies biofilm composed of Streptococcus sanguinis, Actinomyces naeslundii, Porphyromonas gingivalis, and Fusobacterium nucleatum was grown for 14 days on various titanium discs: machined, sandblasted, sandblasted and acid-etched (SLA), ZnCuO-coated, and hydroxyapatite discs. Bacterial species were quantified with qPCR, and their viability was examined via confocal microscopy. Osteoblast-like and macrophage-like cells grown on the various discs for 48 h were examined for proliferation using an XTT assay, and for activity using ALP and TNF-α assays. The CSLM revealed more dead bacteria in biofilms grown on titanium than on hydroxyapatite, and less on sandblasted than on machined and ZnCuO-coated surfaces, with the latter showing a significant decrease in all four biofilm species. The osteoblast-like cells showed increased proliferation on all of the titanium surfaces, with higher activity on the ZnCuO-coated and sandblasted discs. The macrophage-like cells showed higher proliferation on the hydroxyapatite and sandblasted discs, and lower activity on the SLA and ZnCuO-coated discs. The ZnCuO-coated titanium has anti-biofilm characteristics with desired effects on host cells, thus representing a promising candidate in the complex battle against peri-implantitis.

Rhenium Sulfide Incorporated in Molybdenum Sulfide Nanosheets for High-Performance Symmetric Supercapacitors with Enhanced Capacitance.

Supercapacitors are considered potential energy storage devices and have drawn significant attention due to their superior intrinsic advantages. Herein, we report the synthesis of ReS2 embedded in MoS2 nanosheets (RMS-31) by a hydrothermal technique. The prepared RMS-31 electrode material demonstrated superior pseudocapacitive behavior in 1 M KOH electrolyte solution, which is confirmed by the heterostructure of RMS-31 nanosheet architectures. RMS-31 has a specific capacitance of 244 F g-1 at a current density of 1 A g-1 and a greater areal capacitance of 540 mF cm-2 at a current density of 5 mA cm-2. The symmetric supercapacitor device with the RMS-31 electrode delivers an energy density of 28 W h cm-2 with a power density of 1 W cm-2 and reveals long-term stability at a constant current density of 5 mA cm-2 for 10,000 cycles while accomplishing a retention of 66.5%. The high performance of this symmetric device is attributed to the synergistic effect of ReS2 and MoS2 and the presence of the metallic 1T-MoS2 phase in the RMS-31 electrode. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of increasing the interlayer spacing of 2H-MoS2 by incorporating ReS2 for symmetric supercapacitor applications.

Mussel-Inspired Polynorepinephrine/MXene-Based Magnetic Nanohybrid for Electromagnetic Interference Shielding in X-Band and Strain-Sensing Performance.

The current work delivers preparation of MXene-based magnetic nanohybrid coating for flexible electronic applications. Herein, we report carbon dot-triggered photopolymerized polynorepinepherene (PNE)-coated MXene and iron oxide hybrid deposited on the cellulose microporous membrane via a vacuum-assisted filtration strategy. The surface morphologies have been monitored by scanning electron microscopy analysis, and the coating thickness was evaluated by the gallium-ion-based focused ion beam method. Coated membranes have been tested against uniaxial tensile stretching and assessed by their fracture edges in order to assure flexibility and mechanical strength. Strain sensors and electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding have both been tested on the material because of its electrical conductivity. The bending strain sensitivity has been stringent because of their fast 'rupture and reform' percolation network formation on the coated surface. Increased mechanical strength, solvent tolerance, cyclic deformation tolerance, and EMI shielding performance were achieved by decreasing interstitial membrane porosity. Considering a possible application, the membrane also has been tested against simulated static and dynamic water flow conditions that could infer its excellent robustness which also has been confirmed by elemental analysis via ICP-MS. Thus, as of nurturing the works of the literature, it could be believed that the developed material will be an ideal alternative of flexible lightweight cellulose for versatile electronic applications.

Synthesis of Doped/Hybrid Carbon Dots and Their Biomedical Application.

Carbon dots (CDs) are a novel type of carbon-based nanomaterial that has gained considerable attention for their unique optical properties, including tunable fluorescence, stability against photobleaching and photoblinking, and strong fluorescence, which is attributed to a large number of organic functional groups (amino groups, hydroxyl, ketonic, ester, and carboxyl groups, etc.). In addition, they also demonstrate high stability and electron mobility. This article reviews the topic of doped CDs with organic and inorganic atoms and molecules. Such doping leads to their functionalization to obtain desired physical and chemical properties for biomedical applications. We have mainly highlighted modification techniques, including doping, polymer capping, surface functionalization, nanocomposite and core-shell structures, which are aimed at their applications to the biomedical field, such as bioimaging, bio-sensor applications, neuron tissue engineering, drug delivery and cancer therapy. Finally, we discuss the key challenges to be addressed, the future directions of research, and the possibilities of a complete hybrid format of CD-based materials.

Sonochemically engineered nano-enabled zinc oxide/amylase coatings prevent the occurrence of catheter-associated urinary tract infections.

Catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTIs), caused by biofilms, are the most frequent health-care associated infections. Novel antibiofilm coatings are needed to increase the urinary catheters' life-span, decrease the prevalence of CAUTIs and reduce the development of antimicrobial resistance. Herein, antibacterial zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) were decorated with a biofilm matrix-degrading enzyme amylase (AM) and simultaneously deposited onto silicone urinary catheters in a one-step sonochemical process. The obtained nano-enabled coatings inhibited the biofilm formation of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus by 80% and 60%, respectively, for up to 7 days in vitro in a model of catheterized bladder with recirculation of artificial urine due to the complementary mode of antibacterial and antibiofilm action provided by the NPs and the enzyme. Over this period, the coatings did not induce toxicity to mammalian cell lines. In vivo, the nano-engineered ZnO@AM coated catheters demonstrated lower incidence of bacteriuria and prevent the early onset of CAUTIs in a rabbit model, compared to the animals treated with pristine silicone devices. The nano-functionalization of catheters with hybrid ZnO@AM coatings appears as a promising strategy for prevention and control of CAUTIs in the clinic.